Learning Organization Essay

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ar proliferating as corporations seek to accommodate better themselves and bring in an edge. Unfortunately, however, failed programs furthest number successes, and improvement rates remain low. Thats because most companies contribute failed to grasp a basic rectitude. Before concourse and companies tin can improve, they first moldiness learn. And to do this, they charter to look beyond rhetoric and gamy philosophy and focus on the fundamentals. Three critical issues essential be addressed before a company can truly become a schooling presidential term, writes Harvard Business School professor David Garvin.First is the question of kernel a well-grounded, easy-to- ease up definition of a skill organization. Second comes management cle atomic number 18r operational guidelines for practice. Fin all(prenominal)y, better tools for measurement can assess an organizations rate and direct of encyclopedism. Using these tercet Ms as a framework, Garvin def ines learning organizations as skilled at five main activities systematic fuss solving, experimentation with revolutionary(a) approaches, learning from past experience, learning from the best practices of some former(a)s, and transferring k instantlyledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organization.And since you cant manage something if you cant measure it, a comp allowe learning audit is a must(prenominal)iness. That includes measuring cognitive and behavioral changes as well as tangible improvements in results. No learning organization is built overnight. Success comes from carefully cultivated attitudes, commitments, and management processes that accrue slowly and steadily. The first step is to foster an environment conducive to learning. Analog Devices, Chaparral Steel, decamp, GE, and other companies provide enlightened examples.CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMSCONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT PROGRAMS are sprouting up all over as organizations strive to better themselves an d gain an edge. The topic list is long and varied, and sometimes it seems as though a program a month is needed just to keep up. Unfortunately, failed programs far outnumber successes, and improvement rates remain distressingly low. Why? Because most companies pee failed to grasp a basic truth. Continuous improvement requires a commitment to learning. How, aft(prenominal) all, can an organization improve without first learning something new?Solving a problem, introducing a produce, and reengineering a process all require seeing the being in a new light and acting accordingly. In the absence of learning, companies-and individuals -simply repeat old practices. Change remains cosmetic, and improvements are either fortuitous or poor-lived. A few farsighted executives Ray Stata of Analog Devices, Gordon Forward of Chaparral Steel, Paul Allaire of Xerox- assume recognized the link between learning and continuous improvement and have begun to refocus their companies around it.Scholar s too have jumped on the bandwagon, beating the drum for learning organizations and knowledge-creating companies. In rapidly changing businesses like semiconductors and consumer electronics, these vagarys are fast fetching hold. Yet despite the encouraging signs, the topic in large part remains murky, conf apply, and difficult to penetrate. Meaning, Management, and Measurement Scholars are partly to blame. Their discussions of learning organizations have very much been reverential and utopian, filled with near mystical terminology.Paradise, they would have you believe, is just around the corner. Peter Senge, who popularized learning organizations in his book The Fifth Discipline, described them as places where people continually expand their capacity to create the results they truly desire, where new and expansive patterns of hark backing are nurtured, where collective aspiration is right free, and where people are continually learning how to learn together. To achieve these ends, Senge suggested the use of five comp unmatchablent technologies systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models, shared vision, and squad learning.In a similar spirit, Ikujiro Nonaka characterized knowledge-creating companies as places where inventing new knowledge is not a specialized bodily function it is a way of behaving, indeed, a way of being, in which every hotshot is a knowledge worker. Nonaka suggested that companies use metaphors and organizational verbosity to focus thinking, encourage dialogue, and make tacit, instinctively understood ideas explicit. Sound idyllic? Absolutely. Desirable? Without question. But does it provide a framework for action? Hardly. The recommendations are far too abstract, and too many questions remain unanswered.How, for example, will managers know when their companies have become learning organizations? What concrete changes in behavior are required? What policies and programs must be in place? How do you get from here to there? Mo st discussions of learning organizations finesse these issues. Their focus is high philosophy and grand themes, sweep metaphors rather than the gritty details of practice. Three critical issues are left unresolved yet each is essential for strong implementation. First is the question of meaning. We need a plausible, well-grounded definition of learning organizations it must be actionable and easy to apply.Second is the question of management. We need clearer guidelines for practice, filled with operational advice rather than high aspirations. And third is the question of measurement. We need better tools for assessing an organizations rate and level of learning to ensure that gains have in fact been made. Once these three Ms are addressed, managers will have a firmer foundation for launching learning organizations. Without this groundwork, progress is unlikely, and for the simplest of reasons. For learning to become a meaningful corporate goal, it must first be understood. What Is a Learning Organization?Surprisingly, a clear definition of learning has proved to be elusive over the years. Organizational theorists have studied learning for a long time the accompanying quotations suggest that there is still ample disagreement (see Definitions of Organizational Learning on scallywag 77). Most scholars view organizational learning as a process that unfolds over time and link it with knowledge acquisition and improved performance. But they dissent on other important matters. Some, for example, believe that behavioral change is required. for learning others insist that new ways of thinking are enough.Some cite learning processing as the mechanism through which learning takes place others propose-shared insights, organizational routines, even memo. And some think that organizational learning is common, while others believe that flawed, self-serving interpretations are the norm. How can we discern among this cacophony of voices yet build on earlier insights? As a first step, consider the wining definition A learning organization is an organization skilled at creating, acquiring and transferring knowledge, and at modifying its behavior to reflect new knowledge and insights.This definition begins with a simple truth new ideas are essential if learning is to take place. Sometimes they are created de novo, through flashes of insight or creativity at other times they survive from outside the organization or are communicated by knowledgeable insiders. Whatever their source, these ideas are the trigger for organizational improvement. But they cannot by themselves create a learning organization. Without accompanying changes in the way that work gets done, only the potential for improvement exists.This is a surprisingly stringent test for it rules out a number of obvious candidates for learning organizations. Many universities fail to qualify, as do many consulting firms. Even General Motors, despite its recent efforts to improve performance, is found wanting. All of these organizations have been effective at creating or acquiring new knowledge but notably less successful in applying that knowledge to their own activities. Total gauge management, for example, is now taught at many business schools, yet the number using it to guide their own decision making is very small.Organizational consultants advise clients on kind dynamics and small-group behavior but are notorious for their own infighting and factionalism. And GM, with a few exceptions (like Saturn and NUMMI), has had little success in revamping its manufacturing practices, even though its managers are experts on lean manufacturing, JIT production, and the requirements for improved quality of work life. Organizations that do pass the definitional test Honda, Corning, and General Electric come quickly to mind have, by contrast, become proficient at translating new knowledge into new ways of behaving.These companies actively manage the learning process to ensure th at it occurs by design rather than by chance. classifiable policies and practices are responsible for their success they form the building blocks of learning organizations. Building Blocks Learning organizations are skilled at five main activities systematic problem solving, experimentation with new approaches, learning from their own experience and past history, learning from the experiences and best practices of others, and transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organization. apiece is accompanied by a typical mind-set, tool kit, and pattern of behavior. Many companies practice these activities to some degree. But few are consistently successful because they rely largely on happenstance and isolated examples. By creating systems and processes that support these activities and integrate them into the fabric of daily operations, companies can manage their learning more effectively. 1. Systematic problem solving. This first activity rests heavily on the philos ophy and methods of the quality movement.Its underlying ideas, now widely accepted, include Relying on the scientific method, rather than guesswork, for diagnosing problems (what Deming calls the Plan, Do, Check, Act cycle, and others refer to as hypothesis-generating, hypothesistesting techniques). Insisting on selective information, rather than assumptions, as background for decision making (what quality practitioners call fact-based management). Using simple statistical tools (histograms, Pareto charts, correlations, cause-and-effect diagrams) to organize data and draw inferences.Most training programs focus primarily on problem solving techniques, using exercises and practical examples. These tools are relatively straightforward and easily communicated the unavoidable mind-set, however, is more difficult to establish. Accuracy and precision are essential for learning. Employees must therefore become more disciplined in their thinking and more thoughtful to details. They mus t continually ask, How do we know thats true? , recognizing that close enough is not good enough if real learning is to take place.They must push beyond obvious symptoms to assess underlying causes, often collecting evidence when conventional wisdom says it is unnecessary. Otherwise, the organization will remain a prisoner of gut facts and sloppy reasoning, and learning will be stifled. Xerox has mastered this approach on a companywide scale. In 1983, old managers launched the companys leaders Through Quality initiative since then, all employees have been trained in small-group activities and problem-solving techniques. Today a six-step process is used for virtually all decisions (see Xeroxs Problem-Solving Process).Employees are provided with tools in four areas generating ideas and collecting information (brainstorming, interviewing, surveying) reaching consensus (list reduction, rating forms, weighted voting) analyzing and displaying data (cause-andeffect diagrams, force-field a nalysis) and planning actions (flow charts, Gantt charts). They then practice these-tools during training sessions that depart several days. Training is presented in family groups, members of the resembling department or business- social unit team, and the tools are applied to real problems facing the group.The result of this process has been a common language and a consistent, companywide approach to problem solving. Once employees have been trained, they are expected to use the techniques at all meetings, and no topic is off limits. When a high-ranking group was formed to review Xeroxs organizational structure and suggest alternatives, it employed the very same process and tools. 2. Experimentation. This activity involves the systematic distinct for and testing of new knowledge. Using the scientific method is essential, and there are obvious parallels to systematic problem solving.But unlike problem solving, experimentation is ordinarily motivated by opportunity and expandin g horizons, not by current difficulties. It takes two main forms ongoing programs and one-ofa-kind induction projects. Ongoing programs ordinarily involve a go on series of small experiments, designed to produce incremental gains in knowledge. They are the mainstay of most continuous improvement programs and are especially common on the shop floor. Corning, for example, experiments continually with diverse raw materials and new formulations to increase yields and provide better grades of glass.Allegheny Ludlum, a specialty steelmaker, regularly examines new rolling methods and improved technologies to chevvy productivity and reduce costs. Successful ongoing programs share several characteristics. First, they work hard to ensure a steady flow of new ideas, even if they must be imported from outside the organization. Chaparral Steel sends its first-line supervisors on sabbaticals around the globe, where they visit academic and industry leaders, develop an savvy of new Xeroxs Pro blem-Solving Process StepQuestions to be Answered What do we want to change? Expansion/ Divergence Lots of problems for consideration Contraction/ Convergence One problem statement, one desired state agreed upon Whats Next to Go to the Next Step Identification of the gap Desired state described in noticeable terms Key causes documented and ranked 1. Identify and select problem 2. Analyse Problem Whats preventing us from reaching the desired state? How could we make the change? Whats the best way to do it? Lots of potential causes identified.Key causes identified and verified 3. Generate potential responses 4. Select and plan the resolve Lots of ideas on how to solve the problem Lots of criteria for evaluating potential bases. Lots of ideas on how to implement and evaluate the selected solution Potential solutions clarified Criteria to use for evaluating solution agreed upon Implementation and evaluation plans agreed upon Implementation of agreed-on contingency plans (if necessar y) Effectiveness of solution agreed upon Continuing problems (if any) identified Solution List.Plan for making and observe the change Measurement criteria to evaluate solution effectiveness 5. Implement the solution Are we following the plan? Solution in place 6. Evaluate the solution How well did it work? Verification that the problem is solved, or Agreement to address continuing problems work practices and technologies, then bring what theyve learned back to the company and apply it to daily operations. Inlarge part as a result of these initiatives, Chaparral is one of the five lowest cost steel plants in the beingness.GEs furbish up Program originally sent manufacturing managers to Japan to study factory innovations, such as quality circles and kanban cards, and then apply them in their own organizations today atomic number 63 is the destination, and productivity improvement practices the target. The program is one reason GE has recorded productivity gains averaging nearly 5% over the last four years. Successful ongoing programs also require an incentive system that favors risk taking. Employees must feel that the benefits of experimentation exceed the costs otherwise, they will not participate.This creates a difficult scrap for managers, who are trapped between two perilous extremes. They must maintain accountability and control over experiments without stifling creativity by unduly penalizing employees for nonstarters. Allegheny Ludlum has better this juggling act it keeps expensive, high-impact experiments off the scorecard used to evaluate managers but requires prior approvals from four senior vice presidents. The result has been=a history of productivity improvements annually avenging 7% to 8%.Finally, ongoing programs need managers and employees who are trained in the skills required to perform and evaluate experiments. These skills are seldom intuitive and must usually be learned. They get over a broad sweep statistical methods, like design of experiments, that efficiently compare a large number of alternatives in writing(p) techniques, like process analysis, that are essential for redesigning work flows and creativity techniques, like storyboarding and role playing, that keep novel ideas flowing. The most effective training programs are tightly focused and feature a small set of techniques tailored to employees needs.Training in design of experiments, for example, is useful for manufacturing engineers, while creativity techniques are well suitable to development groups. Demonstration projects are usually larger and more complex than ongoing experiments. They involve holistic, system wide changes, introduced at a single invest, and are often undertaken with the goal of developing new organizational capabilities. Because these projects represent a sharp break from the past, they are usually designed from scratch, using a pick slate approach.General Foodss Topeka plant, one of the first high commitment work systems in t his country, was a pioneering demonstration project initiated to introduce the idea of self-managing teams and high levels of worker autonomy a more recent example, designed to rethink small-car development, manufacturing, and sales, is GMs Saturn Division. Demonstration projects share a number of distinctive characteristics They are usually the first projects to embody principles and approaches that the organization hopes to adopt later on a larger scale.For this reason, they are more transitional efforts than endpoints and involve gigantic learning by doing. Mid-course corrections are common. They implicitly establish policy guidelines and decision rules for later projects. Managers must therefore be sensitive to the precedents they are backing and must send strong signals if they expect to establish new norms. They often encounter severe tests of commitment from employees who wish to see whether the rules have, in fact, changed. They are normally developed by strong multif unctional teams reporting directly to senior management.(For projects targeting employee involvement or quality of work life, teams should be multilevel as well. ) They tend to have only limited impact on the rest of the organization if they are not accompanied by explicit strategies for transferring learning. All of these characteristics appeared in a demonstration project launched by Copeland Corporation, a highly successful compressor manufacturer, in the mid-1970s. Matt Diggs, then the new CEO, wanted to transform the companys approach to manufacturing. Previously, Copeland had machined and assembled all products in a single facility Costs were high, and quality was marginal.The problem, Diggs felt, was too much complexity. At the outset, Diggs assigned a small, multifunctional team the task of designing a focused factory dedicated to a narrow, newly developed product line. The team describe directly to Diggs and took three years to complete its work. Initially, the project bu dget was $10 million to $12 million that figure was repeatedly revised as the team found, through experience and with Diggss prodding, that it could achieve dramatic improvements. The final examination investment, a total of $30 million, yielded unanticipated breakthroughs in reliability testing, automatic tool adjustment, and programmable control.All were achieved through learning by doing. The team set additional precedents during the plants start-up and early operations. To dramatize the importance of quality, for example, the quality manager was appointed second-in-command, a significant move upward. The same reporting relationship was used at all subsequent plants. In addition, Diggs urged the plant manager to ramp up slowly to full production and resist all efforts to proliferate products. These book of instructions were unusual at Copeland, where the marketing department normally ruled.Both directives were quickly tested management held firm, and the implications were fel t throughout the organization. Manufacturings stature improved, and the company as a whole recognized its competitive contribution. One observer commented, Marketing had always run the company, so they couldnt believe it. The change was visible at the highest levels, and it went down hard. Once the first focused factory was running smoothly -it seized 25% of the market in two years and held its edge in reliability for over a decade-Copeland built four more factories in quick succession.Diggs assigned members of the initial project to each factorys design team to ensure that early learnings were not lost these people later rotated into operating assignments. Today focused factories remain the cornerstone of Copelands manufacturing strategy and a continuing source of its cost and quality advantages. Whether they are demonstration projects like Copelands or ongoing programs like Allegheny Ludlums, all forms of experimentation seek the same end moving from superficial knowledge to deep understanding. At its simplest, the feature is between knowing how things are done and knowing why they occur.Knowing how is uncomplete knowledge it is rooted in norms of behavior, standards of practice, and settings of equipment. Knowing why is more fundamental it captures underlying causeand-effect relationships and accommodates exceptions, adaptations, and unforeseen events. The ability to control temperatures and pressures to align grains of te and form silicon steel is an example of knowing how understanding the chemical and physical process that produces the alignment is knowing why. Further distinctions are possible, as the insert Stages of Knowledge suggests. run knowledge can be arrayed in a hierarchy, moving from limited understanding and the ability to make few distinctions to more complete understanding in which all contingencies are anticipated and controlled. In this context, experimentation and problem solving foster learning by pushing organizations up the hierar chy, from lower to high stages of knowledge. 3. Learning from past experience. Companies must review their successes and failures, assess them systematically, and record the lessons in a form that employers find open and accessible.One expert has called t9is process the Santayana Review, citing the noted philosopher George Santayana, who coined the phrase Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it. Unfortunately, too many managers today are indifferent, even hostile, to the past, and by failing to reflect on it, they let valuable knowledge escape. A study of more than 150 new products concluded that the knowledge gained from failures is often instrumental in achieving subsequent successes. In the simplest terms, failure is the ultimate teacher. IBMs 360 computer series, for example, one of the most popular and profitable ever built, was based on the technology of the failed Stretch computer that preceded it. In this case, as in many others, learning occurred by chance rather than by careful planning. A few companies, however, have established processes that require their managers to periodically think about the past and learn from their mistakes. Boeing did so immediately after its difficulties with the 737 and 747 plane programs. Both planes were introduced with much fanfare and also with serious problems.To ensure that the problems were not repeated, senior managers commissioned a high-level employee group, called Project Homework, to compare the development processes of the 737 and 747 with those of the 707 and 727, two of the companys most profitable planes. The group was asked to develop a set of lessons learned that could be used on future projects. After working for three years, they produced hundreds of recommendations and an inch-thick booklet. Several members of the team were then transferred to the 757 and 767 start-ups, and guided by experience, they produced the most successful, error-free launches in Boeings history.Other co mpanies have used a similar retrospective approach. Like Boeing, Xerox studied its product development process, examining three troubled products in an effort to understand why the companys new business initiatives failed so often. Arthur D. Little, the consulting company, focused on its past successes. Senior management invited ADL consultants from around the world to a two-day jamboree, featuring booths and presentations documenting a wide range of the companys most successful practices, publications, and techniques.British Petroleum went even further and established the post-project appraisal unit to review major investment projects, write up case studies, and derive lessons for planners that were then incorporated into revisions of the companys planning guidelines. A five-person unit reported to the board of directors and reviewed six projects annually. The bulk of the time was spent in the field interviewing managers. This type of review is now conducted regularly at the proje ct level. At the marrow of this approach, one expert has observed, is a mind-set that enables companies to recognize the value of productive failure as contrasted with unproductive success. A productive failure is one that leads to insight, understanding, and thereof an addition to the commonly held wisdom of the organization. An unproductive success occurs when something goes well, but nobody knows how or why. IBMs legendary founder, Thomas Watson, Sr. , apparently understood the distinction well. Company lore has it that a young manager after losing $10 million in a risky venture was called into Watsons office. The young man, soundly intimidated, began by saying, I guess you want my resignation. Watson replied, You cant be serious. We just spent $10 million educating you. Fortunately, the learning process need not be so expensive. Case studies and post-project reviews like those of Xerox and British Petroleum can be performed with little cost other than managers time. Compani es can also operate the help of faculty and students at local colleges or universities they bring fresh perspectives and view internships and case studies as opportunities to gain experience and increase their own learning. A few companies have established computerized data banks to speed up the learning process.At Paul Revere Life Insurance, management requires all problem-solving teams to complete short registration forms describing their proposed projects if they hope to qualify for the companys award program. The company then enters the forms into its computer system and can immediately retrieve a inclination of other groups of people who have worked or are working on the topic, along with a contact person. Relevant experience is then just a telephone call away. 4. Learning from others. Of course, not all learning comes from reflection and self-analysis.Sometimes the most powerful insights come from looking outside ones immediate environment to gain a new perspective. Enlighte ned managers know that even companies in completely different businesses can be fertile sources of ideas and catalysts for productive thinking. At these organizations, enthusiastic borrowing is replacing the not invented here syndrome. Milliken calls the process SIS, for Steal Ideas Shamelessly the broader term for it is benchmarking. According to one expert, benchmarking is an ongoing investigation and learning experience that ensures that best industry practices are uncovered, analyzed, adopted, and implemented. The greatest benefits come from studying practices, the way that work gets done, rather than results, and from involving line managers in the process. Almost anything can be benchmarked. Xerox, the concepts creator, has applied it to billing, warehousing, and automated manufacturing. Milliken has been even more creative in an inspired moment, it benchmarked Xeroxs approach to benchmarking. Unfortunately, there is still considerable confusion about the requirements for suc cessful benchmarking. Benchmarking is not industrial tourism, a series of ad hoc visits to companies that have received favorable publicity or won quality awards.Rather, it is a disciplined process that begins with a thorough search to identify best-practice organizations, continues with careful study of ones own practices and performance, progresses through systematic site visits and interview and concludes with an analysis of results, development of recommendations, and implementation. While timeconsuming, the process need not be terribly expensive AT&Ts Benchmarking Group estimates that a moderate-sized project takes four to six months and incurs out-of-pocket costs of $20,000 (when personnel costs ax included, the figure is three to four times higher).Bench marking is one way of gaining an outside perspective another, equally fertile source of ideas is customers. Conversations with customers invariably stimulate learning they are, after all, experts in what they do. Customers ca n provide up-to-date product information, competitive comparisons, insights into changing preferences, and immediate feedback about service and patt ern of use. And companies need these insights at all levels, from the executive suite to the shop floor. At Motorola, members of the Operating and policy Committee, including the CEO, meet personally and on a regular basis with customers.At Worthington Steel, all machine operators make periodic, unescorted trips to customers factories to discuss their needs. Sometimes customers cant declare their needs or remember even the most recent problems they have had with a product or service. If thats the case, managers must observe them in action. Xerox employs a number of anthropologists at its Palo Alto Research Center to observe users of new document products in their offices. Digital Equipment has developed an interactive process called contextual inquiry that is used by software engineers to observe users of new technologies as they go a bout their work.Milliken has created first-delivery teams that accompany the first shipment of all products team members follow the product through the customers production process to see how it is used and then develop ideas for further improvement. Whatever the source of outside ideas, learning will only occur in a receptive environment. Managers cant be defensive and must be open to criticism or bad news. This is a difficult challenge, but it is essential for success.Companies that approach customers assuming that we must be right, they have to be wrong or visit other organizations certain that they cantteach us anything seldom learn very much. Learning organizations, by contrast, cultivate the art of open, attentive listening. 5. Transferring knowledge. For learning to be more than a local affair, knowledge must spread quickly and efficiently throughout the organization.Ideas carry maximum impact when they are shared broadly speaking rather than held in a few hands. A variety o f mechanisms spur this process, including written, oral, and visual reports, site visits and tours, personnel rotation programs, education and training programs, and standardization programs. Each has distinctive strengths and weaknesses.Reports and tours are by far the most popular mediums. Reports serve many purposes they summarize findings, provide checklists of dos and donts, and describe important processes and events. They cover a multitude of topics, from benchmarking studies to accounting conventions to newly discovered marketing techniques. Today written reports are often supplemented by videotapes, which offer greater immediacy and fidelity. Tours are an equally popular means of transferring knowledge, especially for large, multidivisional organizations with multiple sites.